Desalination – California Water Library

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Hyper-Salinity Toxicity Thresholds for Nine California Ocean Plan Toxicity Test Protocols

California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) | July 1st, 2012

Summary

A growing number of coastal cities in California are exploring the potential for ocean desalination as a means to augment freshwater supplies. There are currently a numbe

A growing number of coastal cities in California are exploring the potential for ocean desalination as a means to augment freshwater supplies. There are currently a number of desalination facilities proposed or operating in California. The process of desalination most commonly utilizes reverse osmosis (RO) to remove salts from groundwater, reclaimed water, and seawater. This process results in production of hypersaline reject brine. This reject brine may be discharged into the marine environment, sometimes in combination with discharge from a sewage treatment plant or power plant effluent. Typical RO reject brine produced using 100% seawater can have approximately twice the original salt content of seawater. In order to ensure that brine discharges do not pose risk to coastal receiving waters, it is anticipated that desalination plants will be required to monitor effluent toxicity. Monitoring requirements will likely include testing for effluent toxicity using some combination of the short-term chronic toxicity test protocols listed in the 2009 California Ocean Plan (SWRCB, 2009). While the tests listed in the Ocean Plan have been the subject of ongoing research, no comprehensive studies of the effects of hyper-salinity have been conducted with all seven toxicity test organisms (nine protocols when including sand dollar and urchin fertilization endpoints). The results from these tests will allow determination of the toxicity of hypersaline brine in the absence of any additional toxic constituents that may be produced during the desalination process. These results provide resource managers with background information to facilitate interpretation of toxicity test results from desalination plant effluent testing and permitting of desalination facilities. The results will also be used in the development of an amendment to the California Ocean Plan that addresses impacts to marine life from intakes and discharges from desalination facilities.

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Integrated Coastal Groundwater Monitoring Program and Plan

Monterey County Water Resources Agency (MCWRA) | May 19th, 2019

Summary

California American Water Company (CalAm) is working to increase sustainability of their water supply portfolio to meet the long-term needs of customers in their

California American Water Company (CalAm) is working to increase sustainability of their water supply portfolio to meet the long-term needs of customers in their service area on the Monterey Peninsula. Accordingly, CalAm has proposed the Monterey Peninsula Water Supply Project (MPWSP). The MPWSP includes a desalination plant, distribution pipelines, aquifer storage and recovery and in-lieu use of desalinated water. Feedwater for the desalination plant would be from a seawater intake system consisting of slant wells constructed into the shallow aquifers at the coastal margin of the Salinas Valley Groundwater Basin (SVGB). The objective of the MPWSP is to meet CalAm’s long-term water demands and comply with state imposed regulatory requirements1. A MPWSP Test Slant Wells Study (HWG, 2017) was conducted to evaluate project effects and support preparation of a draft and Final Environmental Impact Statement/Environmental Impact Report (EIR/EIS) (ESA, 2017). CalAm has received a Certificate of Public Convenience and Necessity CPCN) for the MPWSP from the California Public Utilities Commission (CPUC)2. The EIR/EIS supported the CPUC decision. This document presents a proposed Coastal Monitoring Plan (Monitoring Plan) to continue observing the MPWSP effects, if any, on the SVGB.

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Key Issues in Seawater Desalination in California: Costs and Financing

Pacific Institute | November 27th, 2012

Summary

Economics – including both the cost of the water produced and the complex financial arrangements needed to develop a project – are key factors that will determine the

Economics – including both the cost of the water produced and the complex financial arrangements needed to develop a project – are key factors that will determine the ultimate success and extent of desalination in California. New research from the Pacific Institute, Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California: Cost and Financing, assesses desalination costs, financing, and risks associated with desalination projects. The Pacific Institute analysis finds that the cost to produce water from a desalination plant is high but subject to significant variability, with recent estimates for plants proposed in the state ranging from $1,900 to more than $3,000 per acre-foot. “Seawater desalination remains among the most expensive water-supply options available, although the public and decision-makers must exercise caution when comparing costs among different projects,” said Heather Cooley, co-director of the Pacific Institute Water Program and lead author of the report. “In some cases, costs are reported in ways that are not directly comparable. For example, some report the cost of the desalination plant alone, while others include the cost for additional infrastructure needed to integrate the desalination plant into the rest of the water system. Some estimates include costs to finance the project, while others don’t. Even when there is an apples-to-apples comparison, there are a number of site- and project-specific factors that make cost comparisons difficult, such as energy, land, and labor costs and the availability of visible and hidden subsidies.” Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California: Cost and Financing is part of a series of research reports in progress that identify key outstanding issues that must be addressed before additional proposals for new seawater desalination in California are approved. Other issues addressed include the environmental impacts of seawater desalination, the cost and financing of proposed projects, and energy requirements and their greenhouse gas implications. Our analyses seek to provide communities and decision makers with information needed to make decisions about building desalination plants and to create a more rational and sustainable policy around seawater desalination along the California coast, and elsewhere.

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Key Issues in Seawater Desalination in California: Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Pacific Institute | May 1st, 2013

Summary

Interest in seawater desalination in California is high, with 17 plants proposed along the California coast and two in Mexico. But removing the salt from seawater is an e

Interest in seawater desalination in California is high, with 17 plants proposed along the California coast and two in Mexico. But removing the salt from seawater is an energy-intensive process that consumes more energy per gallon than most other water supply and treatment options. A new report from the Pacific Institute series Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California describes the energy requirements and associated greenhouse gas emissions for desalinated water and evaluates the impact of short- and long-term energy price variability on the cost of desalinated water. Energy requirements are key factors that will impact the extent and success of desalination in California. Key Issues for Seawater Desalination in California: Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions shows energy requirements for seawater desalination average about 15,000 kWh per million gallons of water produced. By comparison, the least energy-intensive options of local sources of groundwater and surface water require 0 – 3,400 kWh per million gallons; wastewater reuse, depending on treatment levels, may require from 1,000 – 8,300 kWh per million gallons; and energy requirements for importing water through the State Water Project to Southern California range from 7,900 – 14,000 kWh per million gallons. “Beyond the electricity required for the desalination facility itself, producing any new source of water, including through desalination, increases the amount of energy required to deliver and use the water produced as well as collect, treat, and dispose of the wastewater generated,” said Heather Cooley, co-director of the Pacific Institute Water Program and report author. Conservation and efficiency, by contrast, can help meet the anticipated needs associated with growth while maintaining or even reducing total energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.” Desalination is a reliable source of water, which can be especially valuable during a drought. However, building a desalination plant may reduce a water utility’s exposure to water reliability risks at the added expense of an increase in exposure to energy price risk. Energy is the largest single variable cost for a desalination plant, varying from one-third to more than one-half the cost of produced water. Because of its high energy use, desalination creates or increases the water supplier’s exposure to energy price variability.

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Key Issues in Seawater Desalination in California: Marine Impacts

Pacific Institute | December 11th, 2013

Summary

Desalination, like other major industrial processes, has environmental impacts that must be understood and mitigated. A new report from the Pacific Institute examines e

Desalination, like other major industrial processes, has environmental impacts that must be understood and mitigated. A new report from the Pacific Institute examines effects on the marine environment associated with the construction and long-term operation of seawater desalination plants, including withdrawing water from the ocean and discharging the highly concentrated brine. “If and when we build plants in California, we must ensure that the plants are built to the highest standards given what we know now,” said Cooley. “Additionally, monitoring of existing and proposed desalination plants is crucial to improving our understanding of the sensitivity of the marine environment and helping promote more effective operation and design to minimize ecological and biological impacts in the future.” Modern reverse-osmosis desalination plants, such as those planned or proposed on the California coast, take in large volumes of seawater – generally two gallons are withdrawn for every gallon of freshwater produced – and pass it through fine-pored membranes to separate freshwater from salt. The highly concentrated brine is then typically disposed of back into the ocean. With the majority of desalination plants extracting water directly through open water intakes in the ocean, there is a direct impact on marine life. Fish and other marine organisms are killed on the intake screens (impingement); organisms small enough to pass through, such as plankton, fish eggs, and larvae, are killed during processing of the salt water (entrainment). The impacts on the marine environment, even for a single desalination plant, may be subject to daily, seasonal, annual, and even decadal variation, and are likely to be species- and site-specific.

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Management of Brine Discharges to Coastal Waters: Recommendations of a Science Advisory Panel

Southern California Coastal Water Research Project | June 6th, 2012

Summary

A panel of five experts in diverse fields related to brine disposal in the ocean was convened to advise the State Water Resources Control Board on best practices for brin

A panel of five experts in diverse fields related to brine disposal in the ocean was convened to advise the State Water Resources Control Board on best practices for brine disposal in support of the development of an amendment to the Ocean Plan. The brine concentrates can result from desalination of brackish groundwater, recycling domestic wastewater, and especially desalination of seawater. The potential of seawater desalination to provide potable water in the state is growing rapidly, with many plants currently proposed or in the planning stage. The state presently has no regulations on brine discharges and each plant is considered on a case-by-case basis. The panel reviewed extensive material, including peer-reviewed journal articles, articles in the gray literature, NPDES permits that have been issued, various regulations from around the world, and results of monitoring studies, and heard presentations about experience with operating discharges. From these reviews it is apparent that concentrate can be disposed of with minimal environmental effects if properly executed. Desirable methods of discharge include co-disposal with heated cooling water from power plants or domestic wastewater, or from a multiport diffuser if “pure” brine is released. Discharges with rapid initial dilution into areas of good flushing result in impacts that extend only a few tens of meters from the discharge. Conversely, poorly implemented disposal schemes with low initial dilution in poorly flushed areas can cause widespread alterations of community structure in seagrass, coral reef, and soft-sediment systems.

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Mitigation and Fees for the Intake of Seawater by Desalination and Power Plants

California State Water Resources Control Board (SWRCB) | March 4th, 2012

Summary

Raw seawater is used for a variety of purposes, including as source water for desalination plants and to cool coastal power plants. Raw seawater is, however, not just col

Raw seawater is used for a variety of purposes, including as source water for desalination plants and to cool coastal power plants. Raw seawater is, however, not just cold and salty but an ecosystem that contains diverse and abundant organisms including the young stages of numerous invertebrates and fishes. Whether impinged (large individuals stuck on screens prior to entering the plant or killed during other plant processes such as heat treatment) or entrained (small individuals carried into the plant with the water) the organisms are killed, essentially eliminating the living production in the water used (review in York and Foster 2005). Considerable research has have been done in California to better estimate losses to this ecosystem by coastal power plant intakes (York and Foster 2005, Steinbeck et al. 2007), and to determine how these losses can be mitigated (Strange et al. 2004). The information from this research has contributed to State of California policy regulating water used by power plants. The policy now applies only to power plants but the intent to protect marine organisms is also broadly applicable to desalination plants and other users of large volumes of seawater. The State’s Once-through Cooling Policy (Policy) states that plants must implement measures to mitigate interim impacts occurring after October 1, 2015, and until the plant comes into full compliance through conversion to closed cycle cooling or by using operational controls and/or structural control technology that results in comparable reductions in impingement and entrainment (IM&E).

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New Sources for California’s Water Supply

State of California | March 1st, 2016

Summary

The Assembly Select Committee on Water Consumption and Alternative Sources was established in February 2015 to examine the strategies California could take to improve wat

The Assembly Select Committee on Water Consumption and Alternative Sources was established in February 2015 to examine the strategies California could take to improve water conservation and expand the portfolio of water sources. Given that California rose to the challenge of conservation, the committee turned its attention to alternative water source strategies such as stormwater capture, ocean desalination and water recycling, holding specific hearings to discuss the latter two in greater detail. This report is the culmination of several hearings held across the state on issues of water use and opportunities for expanding water sources. It includes summaries of expert testimony at those hearings, including illustrative slides from their presentations, as well as a list of key findings and recommendations compiled by committee staff and approved by the Chair. These findings and recommendations were not voted on by members of the Select Committee and may not reflect the view of each Select Committee member. This report is meant to provide knowledge regarding California’s drought, climate change future, and viability of water sourcing strategies including stormwater capture, water recycling and desalination. This knowledge will be essential in adapting California’s water infrastructure to climate changes and devising the most effective and environmentally friendly approach to endure the next California drought.

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Trade-offs across the water-energy-food nexus: A triple bottom line sustainability assessment of desalination for agriculture in the San Quintín Valley, Mexico

Environmental Science & Policy (Elsevier) | September 30th, 2020

Summary

This paper introduces a novel triple bottom line sustainability assessment to evaluate the water-energy-food nexus of desalination for agriculture. Falling technology cos

This paper introduces a novel triple bottom line sustainability assessment to evaluate the water-energy-food nexus of desalination for agriculture. Falling technology costs and rising water scarcity worldwide make desalination an increasingly attractive proposition, and agriculture is one of the main sectors grappling with its potential impacts. To explore this issue, we combine a wide range of primary and secondary environmental, economic, and social data with a triple bottom line / WEF nexus analysis, to demonstrate both the holistic sustainability impacts of desalination for agriculture, and the multi-sectoral policy environment within which desalination is adopted. We apply this approach to 54 privately-owned desalination plants that treat brackish groundwater for agricultural use in the San Quintín Valley of Baja California, Mexico. We find that subsidized energy for local agribusinesses plays an important role in making desalination economically viable in the region. This in turn fuels a large agricultural export industry that represents a significant virtual water transfer to the US market. Rapid population growth in the area driven by agricultural labor needs exacerbates the issues of social equity and sustainability that these subsidies and transfers raise. We conclude with a discussion of how to manage these identified trade-offs across the water-energy-food nexus.

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UN-Water Analytical Brief on Unconventional Water Resources

United Nations (UN) | June 5th, 2020

Summary

Increasing water scarcity is recognized as a key challenge to sustainable development and major cause of conflict, social unrest and changes to traditional migration rout

Increasing water scarcity is recognized as a key challenge to sustainable development and major cause of conflict, social unrest and changes to traditional migration routes and new migration patterns. At the same time water is increasingly considered as an instrument for international cooperation to support food production, livelihoods, ecosystems, climate change adaption, and sustainable development. As water scarcity is set to continue and intensify in dry areas, the world at large is in danger of leaving the water scarcity challenge to future generations who will be confronted with the consequences of today’s practices. Thus, water-scarce areas must sustainably access and utilize every available option for water resources in order to minimize the pressure that continues to grow. Conventional water provisioning approaches relying on snowfall, rainfall and river runoff are not enough to meet growing freshwater demand in water-scarce areas. Considering the water-related sustainable development challenges in arid regions, unconventional water resources are an emerging opportunity to narrow the water demand-supply gap. There are fragmented, but growing, examples of using unconventional water resources across the world to boost water supplies to address water scarcity.

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San Joaquin Valley - Madera 5-022.06
San Joaquin Valley - Merced 5-022.04
San Joaquin Valley - Modesto 5-022.02
San Joaquin Valley - Pleasant Valley 5-022.10
San Joaquin Valley - Tracy 5-022.15
San Joaquin Valley - Tulare Lake 5-022.12
San Joaquin Valley - Tule 5-022.13
San Joaquin Valley - Turlock 5-022.03
San Joaquin Valley - Westside 5-022.09
San Joaquin Valley - White Wolf 5-022.18
San Juan Valley 9-001
San Luis Obispo Valley 3-009
San Luis Rey Valley - Lower San Luis Rey Valley 9-007.02
San Luis Rey Valley - Upper San Luis Rey Valley 9-007.01
San Marcos Area 9-032
San Mateo Valley 9-002
San Onofre Valley 9-003
San Pasqual Valley 9-010
Santa Barbara 3-017
Santa Clara River Valley - Fillmore 4-004.05
Santa Clara River Valley - Mound 4-004.03
Santa Clara River Valley - Oxnard 4-004.02
Santa Clara River Valley - Piru 4-004.06
Santa Clara River Valley - Santa Clara River Valley East 4-004.07
Santa Clara River Valley - Santa Paula 4-004.04
Santa Clara Valley - East Bay Plain 2-009.04
Santa Clara Valley - Niles Cone 2-009.01
Santa Clara Valley - San Mateo Plain 2-009.03
Santa Clara Valley - Santa Clara 2-009.02
Santa Cruz Mid-County 3-001
Santa Margarita 3-027
Santa Maria River Valley - Arroyo Grande 3-012.02
Santa Maria River Valley - Santa Maria 3-012.01
Santa Maria River Valley 3-012.02
Santa Maria Valley 9-011
Santa Rosa Valley - Santa Rosa Plain 1-055.01
Santa Ynez River Valley 3-015
Scott River Valley 1-005
Searles Valley 6-052
Seven Oaks Valley 8-008
Shasta Valley 1-004
Sierra Valley 5-012.01
Silver Lake Valley 6-034
Simi Valley 4-009
Soda Lake Valley 6-033
South San Diego River Valley 9-015
Superior Valley 6-049
Temecula Valley 9-005
Terwilliger Valley 7-026
Thousand Oaks Area 4-019
Tule Lake 1-002-01
Twentynine Palms Valley 7-010
Ukiah Valley 1-052
Upper Kingston Valley 6-022
Upper Mojave River Valley 6-042
Upper Ojai Valley 4-001
Upper Santa Ana Valley - Chino 8-002.01
Upper Santa Ana Valley - Cucamonga 8-002.02
Upper Santa Ana Valley - Rialto-Colton 8-002.04
Upper Santa Ana Valley - Riverside-Arlington 8-002.03
Upper Santa Ana Valley - San Bernardino 8-002.06
Upper Santa Ana Valley - San Timoteo 8-002.08
Upper Santa Ana Valley - Temescal 8-002.09
Upper Santa Ana Valley - Yucaipa 8-002.07
Vallecito-Carrizo Valley 7-028
Ventura River Valley - Lower Ventura River 4-003.02
Ventura River Valley - Upper Ventura River 4-003.01
Vidal Valley 7-042
Ward Valley 7-003
Warren Valley 7-012
West Salton Sea
Wingate Valley 6-019
Yuma Valley 7-036

Delta Documents Primers on Cal Water Infrastructure, Water Rights and Government

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